![](/uploads/1/2/5/8/125804419/805094678.jpg)
Effectiveness
5 out of 5
Well-implemented features and customization
5 out of 5
Well-implemented features and customization
Jan 19, 2017 - Airmail is available for both Mac ($9.99) and iOS ($4.99), but we're going to focus on the iPhone version. However, if you have both, almost.
ease of use
4.5 out of 5
Extensive features are easy to use
4.5 out of 5
Extensive features are easy to use
support
5 out of 5
Online chat, FAQ and knowledge base
5 out of 5
Online chat, FAQ and knowledge base
Quick Summary
According to the description in the Mac App Store, Airmail 3 is “designed with performance and intuitive interaction in mind”. Does it succeed? Is it the fastest and easiest email client for Mac? Or does its extensive feature set make it tricky to use?
Airmail is certainly fast and responsive, even on my almost-ten-year-old iMac, and it looks great too. The app looks modern and attractive, and I enjoy its new dark mode designed for macOS Mojave.
“Airmail was designed from the ground up to give you a consistent experience whether you use single or multiple accounts, and to provide a quick, modern, and easy-to-use interface. Airmail is clean and allows you to get to your emails without interruption.”
Airmail is highly customizable. While you may find it useful out of the box, you’ll get the most out of the app if you spend time tweaking it. Over time you’ll discover new ways you can use the app and save yourself time and effort. It’s not free like some of its competition, but I find it more than worth the price.
What I Like
- It's fast
- Looks great
- Easy to set up
- Highly customizable
Airmail 3
macOS/iOS, $9.99
Quick Navigation
// Why Should You Trust Me?
// What Is Airmail?
// Airmail: What’s In It For You?
// Reasons Behind My Reviews and Ratings
// Alternatives to Airmail
// Conclusion
// What Is Airmail?
// Airmail: What’s In It For You?
// Reasons Behind My Reviews and Ratings
// Alternatives to Airmail
// Conclusion
Why Should You Trust Me?
My name is Adrian, and email has been a regular part of my life since the 90s. At times I’ve had to deal with hundreds of emails a day, and have used quite a number of email clients to get the job done.
In the early days I used Microsoft Outlook, Netscape Mail, Opera Mail and more. I jumped on the Gmail bandwagon early, and loved its simple interface and fast search.
In recent years I’ve been using more modern email clients that focus on minimalism and the workflow of processing overflowing inboxes. I used Sparrow for quite a while, and moved to Airmail in 2013 when Sparrow was discontinued.
I find it a good match for my needs—and even more now there’s an iOS version. I appreciate the app’s smooth workflow and customizability. In recent months I have also been using Spark quite extensively, and find it a good alternative, offering great workflow features and ease-of-use, though with fewer options under the hood.
Is Airmail a good match for you too? Quite possibly. In this review I’ll explore the app’s features so you can make up your own mind.
What Is Airmail?
Airmail is attractive, affordable, easy to use, and very fast. Its interface is smooth and modern, and doesn’t get in your way. New email accounts are easy to set up, and its clean looks won it an Apple Design Award in 2017. There’s a lot to love about this app.
It’s by no means a newcomer, and was released in 2013. The app is not free, but it is very reasonable—$9.99 from Mac App Store. A universal iOS app is also available for $4.99, which works on iPhone, iPad and Apple Watch.
Is Airmail Safe?
Yes, it is safe to use. I’ve been running Airmail 3 on my macOS Sierra based MacBook Air and older iMac. A scan using Bitdefender found no viruses or malicious code.
And the development team seem committed to keeping it safe. In August 2018, VerSpite discovered a vulnerability in Airmail that could potentially allow attackers to steak files by just sending you an email.
The team responded very quickly to the news and issued a fix within days (as reported by The Verge). It’s great to see that the Airmail team have made our security a priority.
Is Airmail for Windows?
Airmail is available for Mac and iOS, but not Windows. While a Windows version is requested by many people, there’s no indication one is planned.
We recommend you find an alternative, and I direct you to our roundup of the best email clients for Windows. Mailbird is our favorite.
Is Airmail Better than Apple Mail?
Apple Mail comes free with macOS and iOS, and is the most commonly-used email client among Apple users. Why would you bother with Airmail when you already have a decent email client on your computer? There are some significant reasons, especially if you like to personalize your apps.
Airmail is faster and more stable than Apple Mail. It is easier to set up, performs searches faster, handles Gmail accounts better, integrates with more apps and services, and is more configurable. It also offers more features, including the ability to snooze an email and treat it as a task or a memo.
If any of that appeals to you, read on. In the next section we’ll outline Airmail’s features.
Airmail: What’s In It For You?
Many of us receive a lot of emails, and Airmail can help you work through it all quicker and more effectively. It offers features that let you work through your inbox more quickly and intelligently, and reply as immediately as a chat app. I’ll list its major features in the following six sections, exploring what the app offers and sharing my personal take.
1. Airmail Is Easy to Set Up
Because you purchase Airmail from the Mac and iOS App Stores, installation is a breeze. So is adding an email account, which normally takes just a few simple steps.
Airmail can configure the settings of many popular email providers (including Google, Yahoo and Outlook ) with very little input from you.
My personal take: Many email clients now make setting up your accounts easier than ever, and Airmail is no exception. In more cases it will just take a minute or two, and all you’ll need to know is your email address and password.
2. Airmail’s Interface Can Be Heavily Customized
Airmail is highly customisable, and can be made to look and work pretty much any way you like. It now supports Mojave’s dark mode, and switches automatically.
Or you can use it when you're away from your own computer, and use another email application, such as Outlook or Apple Mail, the rest of the time. You can choose to use Outlook on the Web exclusively. Web based outlook email access.
The app looks attractive, and by default resembles many other email clients, as you’ll notice in the screenshots above. But it doesn’t have to stay that way. Sidebars can be hidden to make the interface as minimal as possible, and can be quickly shown or hidden by clicking a menu bar icon.
The number of lines displayed in the message preview can be tweaked so that you can get a good idea of the contents without having to open the email. Swipe actions can be customized to allow you to plough through your inbox as rapidly as possible.
Other interface options include a unified inbox, smart folders, quick reply, the use of Markdown when composing emails, and the ability to carefully hone the notifications it gives. A wide range of appearance preferences are offered.
Themes and plugins allow even further customization. Once you’ve got it looking and working just right your settings are automatically synced with your other Macs and devices via iCloud. That’s a real time-saver.
My personal take: The ability to customize Airmail so completely is its winning feature. No matter what your preferences are, you should be able to make Airmail look and work just as you like.
3. Airmail Lets You Choose When to Read and Send Emails
If you like to keep your inbox empty, but you’ve received an email you can’t deal with till the weekend, Airmail lets you snooze it. The email will vanish from your inbox, then come back on the day you specify.
That way your inbox isn’t full of messages you can’t deal with, distracting you from those you can actually work on today.
Snooze options include later today, tomorrow, this evening, this weekend and next week. You can customize exactly long Airmail will snooze your messages for each of these.
You can also postpone sending an email. If you’re working late at night, you may prefer for the message to be sent during business hours. After all, you don’t want to set an expectation that you’ll stay up to midnight every night answering emails.
Just click the Send Later icon, and decide when Airmail will send it. Your computer will need to be on at that time (with Airmail running) for this to work.
Finally, you can configure Airmail to give you the option to undo a send. But you have to be fast—you only have five or ten seconds to change your mind!
My personal take: With mobile devices and internet everywhere, we have the option of accessing email any time and any place. Airmail’s Snooze and Send Later features make it easier to send and deal with emails when it suits you.
4. Airmail Lets You Treat Emails Like Tasks
Airmail has a simple task manager built in that helps you keep track of emails that you need to act on or reference in the future. It does this by allowing you to tag some of your emails with To Do, Memo or Done, grouping them together in the sidebar. These task management labels act like tags, but are actually folders that are given special treatment.
If an email contains a task you need to complete, just mark it To Do. All emails requiring your action will be grouped together. Once you complete the task, move it to Done.
Any emails containing useful reference material can be marked Memo. This will create a searchable reference library within Airmail. These emails could contain client contact details, login details to your online services, or company policy. Airmail will make it easier to find them in the future.
If you’d prefer not to use your email client as a task manager, Airmail integrates with quite a few productivity apps, which we’ll touch on in more detail in the next section. So instead, you can send an email to OmniFocus, Things or Reminders, and track the task there.
My personal take: We receive so many emails, it’s easy for the important ones to slip through the cracks. You especially don’t want to lose track of emails that require you to do something, or emails with critical information you need access to in the future. Airmail’s task management features are a real help with this.
5. Airmail Integrates with a Wide Range of Apps and Services
Apple Mail is an island. It doesn’t integrate well with other apps and services, not even via Apple’s own Share Sheet interface. That’s fine if you only want to manage your emails within the app, but it has always frustrated me.
Airmail, by contrast, is highly integrated, allowing you to send your emails to your notes app, to do list, calendar and more. This is really useful, though isn’t always implemented the way I would like.
The Send To menu can be accessed from the “right click” menu, or by pressing Z when an email is selected.
For example, I can add an email to one of my calendars. The email is added at the date and time that the email was sent to you.
If you’d like it to have a different date or time, you have to edit the appointment in the Calendar app. I’d prefer to be given that choice in Airmail.
I can also send an email to Bear, my notes app. Again, I wish that more options were offered. The note in Bear just contains a link to the email, when I would prefer the full text of the email to be placed in the note.
Or I can add an email that requires action to Things 3, my to do list manager. This time a pop-up from Things is displayed allowing me to change the title of the task and where it is stored. A link to the email is included in the notes.
Quite a number of other integrations are available. They can’t be configured, so depending on whether the action provided is what you want, you may or may not find them useful.
My personal take: If you’re frustrated that Apple Mail doesn’t give you an easy way to move information in emails to other apps, Airmail may be a dream come through. It has integration with a wide number of other apps, but the way it integrates may not always suit you.
6. You Can Automate Airmail to Save Time and Effort
If Airmail doesn’t do something you need out of the box, you may be able to make it happen using the app’s automation tools. Or if you regularly do something that requires a number of steps, you may be able to save time by combining those steps into a single action.
One way to make things happen automatically is by creating Rules. These trigger actions that you can perform on emails in an “if… then” scenario. These triggers can operate on incoming or outgoing mail, and can be limited to a single email account if you like. You can define multiple conditions (where all or any need to be true), and also multiple actions.
You could use rules to show a notification when you receive an email from a certain person, or with a certain word in the subject. Or you could use a rule to automatically save attached PDFs and archive the emails.
Actions are another way to manipulate your emails. The Action menu is configurable, and includes common tasks such as archive, star and mark as read, as well as less common but useful tasks such as block, to do and unsubscribe.
For a real time-saver, you can combine a number of actions into a Custom Action. Here are a few ideas for inspiration:
- Mark an email with Airmail’s To Do label, and also add it as a task in Things 3 or OmniFocus.
- Mark an email as Memo and also star it, then place a link to the email in Bear and archive the email.
- Mark the sender of an email as a VIP, and add their details to my contacts app.
There are plenty of ways custom actions can save you time. Just look for combinations of tasks you often perform together on the same email for inspiration.
Finally, you can extend Airmail’s functionality further with the use of plugins. For example, plugins can allow Airmail to work with MailChimp and Campaign Manager newsletters, or send read receipts. And the latest version of Airmail supports both macOS Mojave’s new Quick Actions, and iOS 12’s Shortcuts.
My personal take: If you regularly perform combinations of actions on your emails, Airmail’s automation features can really save you time. The effort it takes to set up a few rules and custom actions will be paid back many times over in gained productivity. And Quick Actions and Shortcuts will allow you to integrate the app more closely into the latest Mac and iOS operating systems.
Reasons Behind My Reviews and Ratings
Effectiveness: 5/5
I have found Airmail fast, responsive and stable. It offers more features and customization than similar apps, while retaining a modern look and workflow. In my opinion, this app has the best balance of features and ease of use for most Mac users.
Price: 4.5/5
Though alternatives like Apple Mail and Spark are free, $9.99 is a fair price to pay for the benefits the app offers. For an additional $4.99 you can also have it on your iPhone, iPad and Apple Watch, so you can use the same tool to access your email everywhere.
Ease of Use: 4.5/5
![Airmail app for mac os x Airmail app for mac os x](/uploads/1/2/5/8/125804419/845413773.jpg)
I would give Spark the edge in ease of use, but Airmail isn’t far behind. That’s impressive considering the additional functionality the app offers. But be warned that there is a lot in Airmail that can be tweaked, and once you start, you might find it difficult to stop!
Support: 5/5
Live support is available directly from the developer’s web page. A detailed, searchable FAQ and knowledge base are provided.
I can’t comment on the responsiveness of the support team, since I haven’t had a reason to contact them while using the app or writing this review.
Alternatives to Airmail
Apple Mail: Apple Mail comes preinstalled with macOS and iOS, and is an excellent email client. It isn’t as customizable as Airmail, or play well with other apps, but it’s the email client of choice for many Apple users.
Spark: Readdle’s Spark Mail is an excellent free alternative to Airmail. It’s a less complex app with a streamlined interface and built-in intelligence. It shares some of Airmail’s functionality, including postponing emails and integration with other apps.
Outlook: Outlook is a great choice if you work within a Microsoft ecosystem. It is included with an Office 365 subscription, and is well integrated with the Microsoft Office suite.
MailMate: MailMate is a keyboard-centric, text-based email client designed for power users. While it doesn’t have Airmail’s good looks, it boasts even more features. For example, the app’s smart mailboxes can use very complex sets of rules.
Check out our Best Mac Email Client roundup for a comprehensive roundup of these alternatives and more.
Conclusion
Although email has been around for 47 years now, it remains an essential form of communication, especially for business users. Because many of us receive so much email, finding the right tool to deal with it all is important.
Airmail does this effectively in a few ways. It offers the ability to customize email previews and swipe actions, allowing you to work through your inbox more quickly. It includes chat-like quick replies, allowing you to respond more immediately. And it includes a number of automation tools that will save you time and effort when set up intelligently.
But the app’s real strength is its customizability. You should be able to make Airmail look and act exactly as you like. That combined with its speed, stability and ease of use make it a worthy email tool for any Mac user. I recommend it.
Email is, in many ways, the hub of modern life. Finding the best email app for your needs is key to a having a more manageable and productive digital experience, whether you're communicating with friends or restoring forgotten passwords. With Google's recent announcement that it will pull the plug on Inbox by Gmail in March 2019, and both Newton and Astro meeting their makers even sooner, you may be in the market for a replacement.
The best email apps help you manage the most important aspects of your digital life without making them more complicated. Some let you turn your inbox into a to-do list. Others are deeply customizable, giving you greater control. What makes the best email apps different from one another, and which one is right for you?
What Makes a Great Email App?
For this list of the best email apps, we only considered email clients, leaving out email services and email assistant apps. An email client is a piece of software you install on your computer or mobile device to access email, even if that email is hosted by another service. An example is the Mail app that comes pre-installed on iOS devices. By way of the Mail app, you can access a Gmail account and a Yahoo Mail account. Gmail and Yahoo Mail in this case would be email services, which we did not consider for this list of the best email apps. Client apps almost always let you access multiple email accounts, giving you the option to see all your messages in one consolidate view.
We also homed in on email apps for personal use, which nixed from consideration a few apps that tend to be more prominent in the business world, such as Microsoft Outlook (desktop app) and IBM Notes. They both have their place among email aficionados but tend to be more well suited for organizations than individuals.
As mentioned, we did not consider email assistant apps, or services that work within your existing email to make it better in some targeted way. An example is SaneBox, a service that works inside your existing email service to automatically sorts incoming messages (among other things). Another example is Boomerang, which adds new features and tools to Gmail and Outlook that help improve your writing and help you remember when to follow-up on messages. Both these apps are highly capable, but they aren't clients and so they weren't considered for this list.
There can be some confusion about email clients and services, however, because some apps cover both ground. Gmail, for instance, is not just an email service but also has a mobile email client app by the same name. The Gmail mobile app lets you read and reply to messages from not only your Gmail account, but also your Yahoo Mail address, Microsoft Office 365 account, and others.
In addition to being email clients, the apps in this list meet other criteria, such as being in a state of full release. In other words, no beta products allowed. (Don't worry. We have an eye on some of the more interesting email apps in the works, such as Pigeon and Superhuman. But we can't accurately assess them until they're fully released.) Ease of use played a major role in our decision-making, as did stability. We also looked for apps that had at least one standout feature or reason for choosing it, which is listed in the 'best for' line in each app's description below. Finally, if you're in search of an app with a specific feature in mind, see the comparison table at the end of this article.
When it comes to email apps, there's no reason you can't choose several to use for different purposes. You might have one app you adore installed on your personal computer, something else for work email, and yet another on your phone. Which ones you choose will depend on how you like to interact with your email and what you do with it. Whatever the case, the best email apps have you covered.
The 15 Best Email Apps
- Airmail (iOS, macOS)
- Edison Mail (Android, iOS)
- eM Client (Windows)
- Front (Android, iOS, macOS, Windows, web)
- Gmail for Mobile (Android, iOS)
- Mail and Calendar by Microsoft (Windows)
- Mail by Apple (iOS, macOS)
- Mailbird (Windows)
- MailMate (macOS)
- Outlook Mobile (Android, iOS)
- Polymail (iOS, macOS, web)
- Postbox (macOS, Windows)
- Spark (iOS, macOS)
- Spike (Android, iOS)
- Thunderbird (Linux, macOS, Windows)
Airmail (iOS, macOS)
Best email app for customizing your inbox
Airmail started out as a simple email app, but over time, it grew with features, and today it's one of the most powerful email client apps available. Customizable notifications make sure you only get alerts when you receive emails from your most important contacts. Swipe gestures are also customizable. Airmail can help you write faster, with built-in templates for your most-used responses. And, it works with your favorite productivity apps, including Fantastical, Evernote, OmniFocus, Dropbox, and others.
Price: $4.99, $9.99
Edison Mail (Android, iOS)
Best email app for categorizing messages automatically
Edison Mail is a mobile email client app designed to give you assistance with sorting and organizing your email. It can automatically sort incoming messages into appropriate groups, such as messages that contain tracking numbers for shipping, those pertaining to subscriptions, and receipts. An undo-send button gives the app universal appeal, and option to turn off read receipts make Edison even more valuable to people to like to be in control of their email. Don't confuse this app with the Edison Assistant (formerly called EasilyDo or Smart Assistant by EasilyDo), as the latter is does more to help you organize your life beyond email alone.
Price: free
eM Client (Windows)
Best email app for merging email, calendar, contacts, tasks
If you're looking for a powerhouse of an email app for Windows, eM Client is a great option. It not only combines email, calendar, contacts, and tasks in one place, but also supports touch interfaces. While the price for a Pro account may sound a little steep, eM Client offers some functionality that's rarely found in other email apps, such as language translation. That's reason enough to choose eM Client if you frequently send and receive messages in multiple languages and aren't fluent in all of them.
Price: free; $49.95 for Pro
Front
Best email app for team collaboration
Front app lets teams manage a single inbox collaboratively. With Front, you connect shared inboxes, such as catchall addresses like [email protected], and then anyone with access can answer or assign messages for other people on the team to answer. Front also lets you connect social media accounts, which teams may also tend to collaboratively.
Price: from $15/month per person, minimum 2 people
Gmail Mobile (Android, iOS)
Best email app for searching and organizing messages
While Gmail is the gold standard among webmail services, its mobile app is surprisingly light on features. But that's not the deciding factor on whether to choose the Gmail app for your phone. The real selling point of this app is how fast and capable it is at searching even the most bloated inboxes. When you use it with a Gmail account (or two; it supports multiple Gmail addresses), you get the same great options for automatically sorting mail into tabs that the service creates for you: Primary, Social, and Updates. With limitless ways to sort mail with filters and labels and exceptional spam filtering, Gmail makes it a breeze to see your most important messages quickly.
Price: free
Mail and Calendar by Microsoft (Windows; mobile equivalent is Outlook Mobile)
Best email app for keeping email simple
Mail and Calendar by Microsoft is a Windows desktop app that keeps email simple. Formerly called Outlook Express, this app covers the basics of email without adding excessive features. It offers threaded email conversations, notifications, and flags to mark your most important messages, along with Outlook-style calendar integration. It's also touch-enabled. If you're a Windows users who prefers to not be distracted by added features, it's a good option.
Price: free
Mail by Apple (iOS, macOS)
Best email app for annotating images, signing documents
The Mail app that comes preinstalled on iOS devices and most Macs may seem like a basic email client, but its simplicity belies the powerful tools under the hood. With its Markup tools, you can add annotations to images and sign documents right from your inbox. You can also use Apple's Mail Drop feature (the same one that works with iCloud) to send extremely large attachments without it eating into your allotted email storage space.
Price: included with Mac and iOS devices
Mailbird (Windows)
Best email app for increasing productivity with integrations
Mailbird is a Windows email app with a contemporary design. You can personalize your inbox with custom layouts and sidebar themes. It also includes integration options with popular productivity apps, such as Asana, Todoist, Slack, and others. While rich with features, such as the ability to snooze messages until later and automated scrolling for speed readers, some advanced capabilities are restricted to higher tiers of service. For example, an undo send option is only available to Mailbird Business subscribers.
Price: free limited version, $12/year for Pro, $59 for lifetime Pro, $20/month per person for Business
MailMate (macOS)
Best email app for composing in markdown
Well suited for those who love plain text and keyboard shortcuts, MailMate lets you jump through your inbox without lifting your fingers from the keyboard. It also supports Markdown formatting and unique views, such as the ability to surface all messages that are similar to the message you're currently viewing. MailMate is perhaps the best Mac email app for power users who value plain text over features such as snooze and undo send.
Price: $49.99
Outlook Mobile (Android, iOS)
Best email app for viewing a focused inbox
While the Outlook desktop app is as powerful as it is bloated with features, the Outlook Mobile app offers quite a different experience. When you use it with a Microsoft email account, you can take advantage of its Focused Inbox view, which automatically finds emails that are likely to be important to you and filters out other distracting messages, keeping them in a tab called Other. The Outlook mobile app also has customizable swipe gestures for deleting, archiving, marking as read, flagging, moving, and snoozing messages (the snooze function is actually called 'schedule,' but it would be snooze in any other app).
Price: free
Polymail (iOS, macOS, web)
Best email app for collaborating with a sales team
Polymail's strong suit is that you can use it collaboratively, especially among sales teams. Create email templates, for example, and you can share them with everyone on a team. For groups that use Salesforce, you can connect the two apps and get information you need from Salesforce while writing messages. Teams can also track email stats together to see how much time everyone spends in their inboxes, or how likely each person is to get a reply. Another great feature is Polymail's ability to watch and report back when recipients open your messages, and who among them downloads attachments you send. You'll also notice in the chart below that Polymail is packed with features, everything from the ability to snooze a message until later to an undo send button.
Price: free; paid plans from $13/month
Postbox (macOS, Windows)
Best email app for organizing multiple inboxes
Since its inception as a spin-off of Mozilla's Thunderbird, Postbox has grown into a powerful app, rich with options for keeping your mail organized. A tabbed interface lets you keep multiple messages open at once. Tags and folders help you categorize and sort mail. Another stellar capability is how Postbox can display a contact info sidebar, letting you dig into the detail about the sender. There's a lot to explore in this powerful and well designed app.
Price: $40
Spark (iOS, macOS)
Best email app for cutting down time spent in email
Every email doesn't need a lengthy reply. Sometimes a thumbs-up or crying face is all you need. With Spark, that's all you have to send, and in the end, that saves you time. After you read an email, tap Quick Reply to send an instant emoji response and archive the message in one step. Spark also saves you time in how it handles calendar invitations. Instead of a standard invite email, Spark shows you a preview of the event in your calendar with Accept and Reject options. This app has a wealth of other features, too, such as undo send, snooze, reminders, and more.
Price: free
Spike (Android, iOS)
Best email app for making email more like messaging
If you prefer text messaging or team chat to email, Spike (formerly Hop) is worth a try. This email client for Android and iOS devices turns message threads into chat-like conversations, so your emails look less like a verbose expanse of text and more like what you see in iMessage or WhatsApp, with GIFs, voice memos, one-tap image sharing, and everything else you'd expect in a chat app. And similar to team chat apps, Spike lets you create channels for organizing conversations around a certain topic. Spike works best when you use it to message with other people who are also using it, too.
Price: free
Thunderbird (Linux, macOS, Windows)
Best email app for working in tabs
From the makers of Firefox comes an email application that copies one of the best features of web browsers: tabs. Thunderbird isn't the only email client to use a tabbed interface, but it is one of the best. When you quit the app, Thunderbird saves your open tabs and reloads them the next time you launch it. An extensive collection of add-ons let you expand what Thunderbird can do.
Price: free
Originally published 2 June 2015 by Paula DuPont; updated in 2017 and 2018 with new apps and current information. Zapier senior writer and editor Matthew Guay contributed to this article.
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